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Building a 4-DoF Serial Robotic Arm with Smart Motion Devices

66f6a5a8aaf871e623c25bc3 65679d59624f3bfe4b1f6b6f robotic arm 4 dof 2 p for "Building a 4-DoF Serial Robotic Arm with Smart Motion

Introduction

Makers/hobbyists and academicians are often willing to build their own serial robotics arm. This is because the robotic arms have a good amount of engineering challenges and learning topics for their internals and how they work. Read our other blog post if you need some information about the different type of robotic manipulators and their building blocks.

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In this article, we will delve a bit more into the serial robotics manipulators and share a simple design on building an affordable and a decent performance robot. Let’s start with the ingredients first:

List of Items Required for Building a Serial Robotic Arm

There are 6 major components that are needed to build a Serial Robot Arm. Here’s a the list of these components with some explanation as well:

Actuators: The serial robotic arm employs multiple motors for rotating its each or at least major motion related joints. Electrical motors (mostly DC, servo for high-speed or stepper motor for low-cost options), which are coupled with gear mechanisms are used to form the actuators of the robotic arms. There are minority cases where another type of actuation mechanism is used such as pneumatic or elastic materials, but those really are not something one can see in daily life.
Sensors: Encoders, loadcells, accelerometers and some digital Input/Output nodes are integrated into the system, offering different ways of feedback for control algorithms.
Linkage and Mounting Parts: To interconnect the actuators to each other and also to make the robotic arm to reach to a distance, some linkage and also mounting parts are needed. The linkage parts can be considered as the exo-skeleton of the robotic arm, whereas the mounting parts may not be seen easily.
Control Unit/Box: An electronics control unit, mostly placed inside a bow or underneat the robotic arm. These are equipped with a specialized control unit that interfaces with Motors / Motor Drivers, sensors and other input/output devices of the robot.
Power Unit/Supply: A suitable and powerful enough power supply is required to power all the actuators, sensors and control unit/box.
Software: Robot Arms have 2 different software options. The industrial arms have a locked firmware and gives access to the robot through an API for supervisory control and robotic tasks. The open-source robots such as Acrobot provide direct access to the motor drivers hence gives the user the ability to control each joint individually. The latter option should also include kinematic and trajectory software functions for the robot to operate in a supervisory control manner similar to the industrial robotic arms.

Introduction to 4-DoF Robotic Arms

While 6 or more-DoF arms offer a wide range of motion and versatility, they often come with complexities that are not required for many common tasks. This is where 4-DoF robotic arms come into play, offering a more streamlined, efficient, and cost-effective solution for specific applications.

3d model of a 4-dof robotic arm controlled by acrome smart motor drivers

Axes and Motion Capabilities

A 4-degree of freedom robotic arm -as its name stands for- has four primary axes that provides manipulator action and capabilities. These axes are as follows:

Axis for Base Rotation: The base rotation axis allows the arm to swivel 360 degrees in a horizontal plane. This is particularly useful in tasks that require the arm to sort items from multiple directions or assemble parts that come from various angles.
Axis for Shoulder Movement: The shoulder axis enables the arm to extend or retract linearly. This is crucial for tasks that require the arm to reach into confined spaces, such as retrieving items from shelves or extending over a conveyor belt to pick up objects.
Axis for Elbow Movement: The elbow axis provides the arm with vertical movement capabilities. This is essential for lifting or lowering objects with precision, making it invaluable in applications like welding, where the arm needs to maintain a specific height for optimal results.
Axis for Wrist Rotation: The wrist rotation axis allows the arm’s end effector to rotate, adding a layer of finesse to tasks that require intricate movements, such as painting intricate designs or performing surgical procedures.

Use Cases and Applications

Manufacturing: In automotive assembly lines, 4-DoF arms are indispensable for intricate welding tasks. Their precision ensures high-quality joins, eliminating the need for human intervention and thereby reducing the margin for error.
Healthcare: In the medical field, these arms are revolutionizing minimally invasive surgeries. Their ability to maneuver surgical instruments with pinpoint accuracy significantly reduces the risk of complications, making surgeries safer and more efficient.
Agriculture: In the realm of modern farming, 4-DoF arms are being employed to harvest delicate crops like tomatoes or strawberries. Their precise movements ensure that the fruit is picked without any damage, optimizing yield and reducing waste.
Research and Education: Educational institutions and research labs are increasingly adopting these arms to study robotics kinematics and provide hands-on STEM learning experiences.

Advantages Over Other Types

Cost-Effectiveness: One of the most compelling advantages of 4-DoF arms is their affordability compared to 6-DoF arms, making them a more accessible option for startups and SMEs.
Ease of Use: The reduced complexity in the control algorithms for 4-DoF arms translates to a shorter learning curve, allowing operators to become proficient more quickly.
Energy Efficiency: These arms are designed with energy conservation in mind. Fewer motors and joints mean less power consumption, which in turn leads to lower operational costs.

Control of the 4-DoF Robotic Arm with Smart Motion Devices (SMDs)

The Brain Behind the Brawn

Smart Motion Devices (SMDs) play a crucial role in the operation of 4-DoF robotic arms. They offer real-time monitoring and adaptability, adjusting motors control signals in real-time synchronously. Please check our Synchronizing Linear Motors and DC Motors article to learn how multiple SMDs can be interconnected and used for driving multiple and different types of motors synchronously.

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The synchronous motor control is especially valuable in robot arm applications, to achieve trajectory movement patterns, like placing an object in a confined or tight space. Each motor has to be controlled precisely during the course of motion (where the synchronous control comes into play) for the arm to follow a predefined trajectory.

In addition to the synchronous position control, the current level of the motors should also be monitored to see if the robot arm is moving freely or if it has hit any obstacle during its motion. Current limiting and active current monitoring are tremendously important for collaborative robot arm applications. Current monitoring is a built-in feature of the SMDs as well.

Last but not least, the sensor data needs to be read by the controller in a timely and precision manner as well. Robot arm can not see its environment directly hence auxiliary sensors are needed for this task. The sensor add-ons of the SMD family is a very neat feature that not only solves this requirement but also provides an easy and clean cabling all around the robot. Both the motor driver boards and also the sensor nodes are daisy chained, hence a single communication line passes both the motor and the sensor data to the controller. Please check the below diagram to see an outline for the connections:

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Bill of Materials

Creating a 4-DoF robotic arm is not just about assembling mechanical parts; it’s about integrating a variety of components into a cohesive, functional system.

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acrome smd module and connection diagram for 4-dof robotic arm

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Here’s a list of materials you’ll need, along with their respective roles in the assembly:

Mechanical Components

Frame: Provides the structural integrity for the arm.
Gearbox: Facilitates the mechanical advantage needed for lifting heavy objects.
Bearings: Ensures smooth rotational movements at various joints.

Electrical Components

Motors: Powers the arm’s movements.
Sensors (Encoders, Gyroscopes, etc.): Provides feedback for precise control.
Power Supply Unit: Fuels the electrical components.

Control Systems

Smart Motion Devices (SMDs): The control center for the robotic arm, offering real-time monitoring and adaptive control algorithms.
Microcontroller: Executes the control algorithms and interfaces with the SMDs.

Software and Firmware

Control Algorithms: Software logic that dictates the arm’s movements.
User Interface: Software for human-machine interaction.

Optional Add-ons

Camera Module: For computer vision tasks.
Grippers or End Effectors: Specialized tools for specific tasks, such as welding or painting.

The introduction of 4-DoF robotic arms represents a significant advancement in fields ranging from manufacturing and healthcare to research and education. The integration of Smart Motion Devices (SMDs) further enhances these systems with features such as real-time sensing, a built-in PID controller, and an easy-to-use graphical user interface. If you are a researcher, educator or industry professional, it is time to embrace this technology.

Last reviewed: 2026-07-04

Executive Summary

Seismic sensors and seismographs convert ground motion into usable engineering data for site characterization, monitoring, event detection, and post-event analysis. This article is maintained as a QuakeLogic engineering resource for readers evaluating terminology, applications, instrumentation, and practical implementation considerations. The content is educational and should be reviewed against project-specific requirements, applicable standards, manufacturer documentation, and qualified engineering judgment.

Key Takeaways

Start with the engineering objective, operating environment, required measurements, and decision workflow.
Use calibrated instrumentation, documented configuration, appropriate sampling, and traceable data handling where results support engineering decisions.
Interpret results in context; boundary conditions, installation quality, noise, bandwidth, and site conditions can materially affect conclusions.
Use standards and references as guidance, not as substitutes for project-specific engineering review.

Technical Explanation

A credible engineering workflow links the physical system, the measurement chain, data acquisition, processing, interpretation, and reporting. For testing, that means documenting the input, payload, fixture, limits, safety controls, and acceptance criteria. For monitoring, that means documenting sensor type, placement, orientation, coupling, timing, communications, maintenance, alarm logic, and review procedures.

Engineering Applications

Use Case	Primary Question	Useful Documentation
Research or education	What behavior can be measured, demonstrated, or repeated?	Test plan, configuration notes, input data, calibration records, and observations.
Infrastructure or facility monitoring	Is response normal, changing, or outside expected limits?	Baseline data, event records, thresholds, inspection notes, and engineering review.
Product or system selection	Which specifications matter for the application?	Measurement range, bandwidth, accuracy, environment, integration needs, and deliverables.

Related Technologies and Resources

References

Recommended Media

Media placeholder: Add an original diagram, workflow graphic, comparison chart, product illustration, lab photograph, or installation schematic after technical review. Do not use stock imagery where readers need to inspect real equipment or engineering details.

Discuss an Application with QuakeLogic

QuakeLogic supports seismic monitoring, earthquake early warning, structural health monitoring, infrasound monitoring, vibration monitoring, data acquisition, robotics education, and shake table testing workflows. For project-specific guidance, contact QuakeLogic with the application, measurement objective, environment, and required deliverables.

Delta Robot and Conveyor Example: A Glimpse into Industrial Automation

Part 1: What is a Delta Robot and What Does It Do?

In today’s world, robotics is transforming how we teach and learn about automation. One such educational tool is the Delta Robot, a precision parallel robotic arm with three degrees of freedom (3-DOF), meaning it can move its end-effector in X, Y, and Z coordinates. The Delta Robot serves as a scaled-down version of the large robotic arms commonly used in industries but is primarily used for educational purposes in school laboratories.

Its main purpose is to show to students, particularly in Control and Automation fields, the fundamental principles of robotic arms, including kinematics and precision handling. Large industrial robotic arms are not feasible for lab environments due to their size and complexity, so the Delta Robot provides a more manageable and safer alternative for hands-on learning.

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Engineering visual for Delta Robot and Conveyor Example: A Glimpse into Industrial Automation — **Figure 1: Acrome Delta Robot**

Part 2: Kinematic Equations – The Core of Robotic Motion

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At the core of the Delta Robot’s functionality lies kinematic equations, which describe the robot’s motion. These equations allow us to calculate the exact position and orientation of the robot’s end-effector based on joint angles. There are two primary types of kinematic equations:

Forward Kinematics: This method calculates the position of the robot’s end-effector based on the angles of its joints, effectively converting angles into X, Y, and Z coordinates.
Inverse Kinematics: This is the reverse process, where we specify the desired position of the end-effector, and the system calculates the necessary joint angles to achieve that position.

By mastering these equations, students can understand how robots are programmed to move accurately within their workspace.

Part 3: Conveyor Example Using a Delta Robot

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In this educational setup, we applied the Delta Robot in a conveyor system example. A conveyor is a mechanical device that moves objects from one location to another. This project demonstrated how a Delta Robot can be integrated with a conveyor to recognize objects and perform precise handling tasks. While industrial robots are often seen in factories working alongside conveyors, in this case, the Delta Robot will be able to operate in a school lab environment, showcasing a similar yet smaller-scale interaction.

The custom conveyor designed for this setup allows the Delta Robot to detect various materials moving along the belt and place them in specific positions. One of the most intriguing parts of this process was object recognition—where the robot identifies objects, detects their shapes, and calculates their position in real-world coordinates.

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Part 4: Converting Pixel to Real-World Coordinates

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To accurately place objects, the Delta Robot must first convert the objects’ position from pixel coordinates (captured by the camera) into real-world coordinates that it can understand. We achieved this using the following formula:

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Formulas to calculate the pixels vs real-world coordinates — Scaling calculations

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Where:

Offset_X and Offset_Y are real-world offsets,
Pixel_X and Pixel_Y are the object’s position in the camera’s field,
Center_X and Center_Y are the pixel coordinates of the camera’s center,
Scale_X and Scale_Y are the scaling factors converting pixel distance to real-world units.

By using this conversion, the robot can accurately map the detected object’s position on the conveyor belt, ensuring it picks up and handles objects precisely.

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Part 5: Detecting Shapes with the Delta Robot

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In our object recognition process, the Delta Robot first captures an image of the conveyor system. Using image processing techniques such as thresholding and contour detection, the system identifies shapes like squares, triangles, and circles. Once a shape is detected, the robot calculates its centroid (center of the shape) and applies the pixel-to-real-world conversion formula to determine its precise location on the conveyor.

Below is the algorithm and pseudo code that explains how to detect the object.

Detect and Pixel to Real Coordinate Algorithm:

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The Delta Robot first captures an image of the conveyor system in the object recognition process. Using image processing techniques such as thresholding, eroding and contour detection, it identifies shapes like squares, triangles, and circles. When a shape is detected, the robot calculates its centroid and applies the pixel-to-real-world conversion formula to determine its precise location. The algorithm begins by initializing the camera and capturing an image, which is then flipped horizontally. A perspective transformation is applied using predefined corner points, and the resulting image is converted to grayscale. Next, binary thresholding and erosion operations are used to enhance the shapes in the image. Contours are detected, and properties such as the centroid, bounding shapes, and aspect ratio are calculated for each contour.

If the Y-coordinate of the centroid is near a specified value, the type of shape is determined, and labels such as square, triangle, or circle are displayed on the console. The centroid of each shape is marked, and the current time is recorded. If the shape has not been logged before, its data is recorded with a timestamp, and the coordinates are converted to the robot’s real-world system. When the coordinates are valid, they are printed along with the shape name, and the coordinates are returned. Throughout this process, the robot adjusts its movements based on the detected shape, allowing it to pick up and place objects accurately.

Detect and Pixel to Real Coordinate Pseudo Code:

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FUNCTION detect()
    INITIALIZE camera
    READ frame from camera
    FLIP frame horizontally
    DEFINE centroids as predefined coordinates
    DEFINE pts1 and pts2 for perspective transformation
    APPLY perspective transformation to the frame
    CONVERT transformed image to grayscale
    APPLY binary threshold
    ERODE  the threshold image
    FIND contours in the image
    DEFINE line_y as 350
    DRAW horizontal line on the image
    FOR each contour DO
        APPROXIMATE contour shape
        CALCULATE contour properties (centroid, bounding rectangle, aspect ratio)
        IF centroid_y is near line_y THEN
            PRINT width and height
            DEFINE shape_name as empty string
            DETERMINE shape based on sides and aspect ratio
                IF square THEN DISPLAY "Square"
                ELSE IF triangle THEN DISPLAY "Triangle"
                ELSE IF circle THEN DISPLAY "Circle"
            DRAW circle at centroid position
            GET current_time
            IF shape is new THEN
                LOG shape data with timestamp
                CONVERT coordinates to robot's real-world system
                IF coordinates are valid THEN
                    ADJUST and PRINT coordinates with shape name
                    RETURN coordinates and label
    RETURN None
END FUNCTION

Depending on the detected shape, the robot can adjust its movements to ensure the object is picked up and placed correctly. For instance, if the robot identifies a square, it uses the centroid coordinates to guide its gripper to the correct position, showcasing the power of automation.

Conclusion: Bringing Automation to the Classroom

This project showed the Delta Robot’s potential for students, highlighting its ability to perform tasks such as object recognition, precise motion, and shape detection—skills essential for real-world automation. Although the conveyor project has not yet been integrated into the educational environment, the progress made with the Delta Robot lays a promising foundation for future applications. It continues, and will continue, to serve as a valuable teaching tool, preparing students for the complexities of industrial automation systems.

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In conclusion, this project shows the Delta Robot’s potential for students, highlighting its ability to perform tasks such as object recognition, precise motion, and shape detection — the essential skills for real-world robotic process automation (RPA). Although this is a conceptual digital conveyor project, the progress made with the real Delta Robot hardware lays a promising foundation for real-world applications.

ACROME’s Delta Robot continues to be a valuable teaching tool, preparing students for the complexities of industrial automation systems.

References:

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Craig, J. J. (2005). Introduction to robotics: Mechanics and control (3rd ed.). Pearson.

Last reviewed: 2026-07-04

Executive Summary

Engineering education and robotics systems help students and researchers connect control theory, sensing, actuation, software, and real-time experimentation. This article is maintained as a QuakeLogic engineering resource for readers evaluating terminology, applications, instrumentation, and practical implementation considerations. The content is educational and should be reviewed against project-specific requirements, applicable standards, manufacturer documentation, and qualified engineering judgment.

Key Takeaways

Start with the engineering objective, operating environment, required measurements, and decision workflow.
Use calibrated instrumentation, documented configuration, appropriate sampling, and traceable data handling where results support engineering decisions.
Interpret results in context; boundary conditions, installation quality, noise, bandwidth, and site conditions can materially affect conclusions.
Use standards and references as guidance, not as substitutes for project-specific engineering review.

Technical Explanation

Engineering Applications

Use Case	Primary Question	Useful Documentation
Research or education	What behavior can be measured, demonstrated, or repeated?	Test plan, configuration notes, input data, calibration records, and observations.
Infrastructure or facility monitoring	Is response normal, changing, or outside expected limits?	Baseline data, event records, thresholds, inspection notes, and engineering review.
Product or system selection	Which specifications matter for the application?	Measurement range, bandwidth, accuracy, environment, integration needs, and deliverables.

Related Technologies and Resources

References

Recommended Media

Discuss an Application with QuakeLogic

University of Washington Installs Ironcore Biaxial Shake Table

QuakeLogic Ironcore bi-axial shake table with magnetic linear motors for university seismic testing

In short: QuakeLogic delivered its Ironcore Bi-Axial Shake Table to the University of Washington, a two-axis earthquake simulator driven by frictionless magnetic linear motors that deliver ±2 g at 50 kg (±1 g at 100 kg), ±125 mm stroke and up to 15 Hz under closed-loop PID control. A 6-story modular plexiglass model structure accompanies it so students can watch real-time structural response during simulated earthquakes.

QuakeLogic is proud to deliver its next-generation Ironcore Bi-Axial Shake Table to the University of Washington—powered by magnetic linear motors, making it the quietest, most precise, and most efficient biaxial shake table on the market today.

ironcore shaketable 2 for "University of Washington Receives Next-Gen Seismic Testing Technology from QuakeLogic"

This state-of-the-art system joins an elite lineup, including a recent deployment at CALTECH, and is designed to elevate seismic education and research across leading academic institutions.

To further enhance the hands-on learning experience in structural dynamics, we also provided a 6-story modular plexiglass model structure. This tool enables students to directly observe and analyze real-time structural behavior under simulated earthquake loading, making abstract theory visible and tangible.

Key Features of the IRONCORE Bi-Axial Shake Table:

👉 Bi-Axial Motion – Two lateral degrees of freedom for complex seismic testing

👉 High Capacity – ±2g acceleration at 50 kg (or ±1g at 100 kg), ±125 mm stroke, up to 15 Hz frequency

👉 Magnetic Linear Motors – Frictionless, ultra-quiet, and low-maintenance performance

👉 Closed-Loop PID Control – Precision motion tracking and waveform fidelity

👉 Versatile Inputs – Supports both standard and custom seismic waveforms

👉 Plug & Play – Easy setup, operation, and industrial-grade reliability

👉 EASYTEST Software – Streamlined test setup, real-time monitoring, and data analysis

Built to advance education.
Designed to accelerate research.
Engineered for real-world seismic simulation.

Learn more about the Ironcore system:
👉 https://www.quakelogic.net/_small-scale-shaketables/biaxial-iron-core

Browse our full catalog of small-scale shake tables:
👉 https://quakelogic.net/small-scale-shaketable-catalog

Need something larger?

We also design, deliver, and install large-scale shake tables, actuators, Universal Testing Machines (UTMs), loading frames, and custom lab equipment for civil, mechanical, and aerospace engineering programs.

📩 Let’s talk about your lab’s needs: sales@quakelogic.net
📞 Or schedule a live demo: +1-916-899-0391

#EarthquakeEngineering #ShakeTable #SeismicTesting #StructuralDynamics #EngineeringEducation #UniversityOfWashington
#QuakeLogic #CivilEngineering #ResearchLab #StructuralEngineering
#LabEquipment #MagneticMotors #STEMEducation #ModernTesting
#InnovationInEducation #HandsOnLearning

Key Takeaways

Ironcore performance: ±2 g at 50 kg or ±1 g at 100 kg payload, ±125 mm stroke, frequencies up to 15 Hz.
Magnetic linear motors make the table frictionless, ultra-quiet and low-maintenance compared with belt or hydraulic drives.
Closed-loop PID control and EASYTEST software handle test setup, real-time monitoring, and standard or custom seismic waveforms.
A 6-story modular plexiglass model structure lets students observe real-time structural behavior under shaking.
The same Ironcore system was recently deployed at Caltech.

Frequently Asked Questions

What are the specifications of the Ironcore bi-axial shake table?

The Ironcore Bi-Axial Shake Table provides two lateral degrees of freedom with ±2 g acceleration at a 50 kg payload or ±1 g at 100 kg, a ±125 mm stroke in each axis and a frequency range up to 15 Hz. It is driven by magnetic linear motors under closed-loop PID control, accepts standard and custom seismic waveforms, and is operated through EASYTEST software.

Why do magnetic linear motors matter in a shake table?

Magnetic linear motors move the table platform directly without belts, ball screws or hydraulic fluid, so there is no mechanical friction or backlash in the drive. In the Ironcore system this makes the table the quietest and most precise biaxial shake table in its class, improves waveform fidelity under PID control, and reduces maintenance because there are no wearing drive components or hydraulic power units.

What is a 6-story modular plexiglass model structure used for?

The 6-story modular plexiglass model is a scaled building frame mounted on the shake table so students can see floor displacements, mode shapes and resonance as the table replays earthquake motions. Because it is modular, instructors can change story stiffness or mass and compare the response, turning structural dynamics theory into an observable experiment.

Which universities use the QuakeLogic Ironcore shake table?

The University of Washington received the Ironcore Bi-Axial Shake Table in 2025, joining a recent deployment at Caltech. Both installations are intended for seismic education and research in structural dynamics. QuakeLogic also supplies large-scale shake tables, actuators, universal testing machines and loading frames for civil, mechanical and aerospace engineering programs that need higher capacity.

How big a specimen can the Ironcore table shake?

The Ironcore table is a small-scale educational and research system rated for payloads of about 50 kg at ±2 g and 100 kg at ±1 g, which suits scaled building models, equipment components and instrumentation tests. Laboratories that need to test full-size structural elements or multi-ton payloads can move up to QuakeLogic's large-scale shake tables and actuator systems.

Need help with a project? QuakeLogic designs and supplies seismic monitoring, earthquake early warning, structural health monitoring, infrasound, and shake table systems. Browse QuakeLogic products or contact our engineering team with your site, structure, or test requirements.

Building a 4-DoF Serial Robotic Arm with Smart Motion Devices

Introduction

List of Items Required for Building a Serial Robotic Arm

Introduction to 4-DoF Robotic Arms

Axes and Motion Capabilities

Use Cases and Applications

Advantages Over Other Types

Control of the 4-DoF Robotic Arm with Smart Motion Devices (SMDs)

The Brain Behind the Brawn

Bill of Materials

Mechanical Components

Electrical Components

Control Systems

Software and Firmware

Optional Add-ons

Executive Summary

Key Takeaways

Technical Explanation

Engineering Applications

People Also Ask

What information should be gathered before selecting equipment?

How can data quality be protected?

When is human engineering review required?

Related Technologies and Resources

References

Recommended Media

Discuss an Application with QuakeLogic

Delta Robot and Conveyor Example: A Glimpse into Industrial Automation

Part 1: What is a Delta Robot and What Does It Do?

Part 2: Kinematic Equations – The Core of Robotic Motion

Part 3: Conveyor Example Using a Delta Robot

Part 4: Converting Pixel to Real-World Coordinates

Part 5: Detecting Shapes with the Delta Robot

Detect and Pixel to Real Coordinate Algorithm:

Detect and Pixel to Real Coordinate Pseudo Code:

Conclusion: Bringing Automation to the Classroom

References:

Executive Summary

Key Takeaways

Technical Explanation

Engineering Applications

People Also Ask

What information should be gathered before selecting equipment?

How can data quality be protected?

When is human engineering review required?

Related Technologies and Resources

References

Recommended Media

Discuss an Application with QuakeLogic

University of Washington Installs Ironcore Biaxial Shake Table

Key Features of the IRONCORE Bi-Axial Shake Table:

Need something larger?

Key Takeaways

Frequently Asked Questions

Related Articles

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